 Models
Resources
Students learn in different ways and thrive in a variety of environments. Some move successfully through the traditional comprehensive public high school, but others struggle to learn in that setting. While the comprehensive high school is still prevalent across the country—and alternatives such as continuation schools and Regional Occupational Centers and Programs (ROCPs) have a long history in California—people are increasingly experimenting with other public school models that can offer students a new way to learn.
Alternative schools typically reflect learning models that were considered successful at the time the school was started. For example, schools have focused on an appealing topic, such as performing arts, or on a different learning style, such as a hands-on approach. In addition, many alternative schools are smaller in order to provide students with more individualized attention.
A variety of players propose and implement new models. In some cases the state or district will start an alternative model, such as schools for troubled youth. Or businesses, such as a hospital, will collaborate with the state or a district to start a partnership academy with the hope that its trained graduates will later seek employment in the business. More recently, parents, community members, and activists have started charter schools and small schools.
This page provides descriptions of various high school models and of specific California schools implementing the particular approach. (EdSource never endorses any particular approach or school but is simply providing information on models and schools that have implemented them.) The resources section provides information on organizations that may further describe these models or provide support and assistance to those implementing them.
In many cases, schools incorporate more than one alternative model. For example, a small school might also be a charter that requires a student to participate in an internship in a local business. Or a traditional comprehensive high school might also adopt various models within it by establishing a “small school” in one wing of the high school, adopting an occupational program on its own or through a regional center, and/or starting a dual enrollment program with a local community college. Models currently operating in California include:
Almost half of all high school students nationally—and likely about the same percentage in
California—take some vocational or career classes either within the high school or through special partnerships, such as ROCPs, outside the school. These classes may help students explore future career options, directly prepare them for postsecondary training or work, or simply keep them interested and engaged enough in high school to pass their classes and graduate. Students often appreciate these programs because they involve hands-on learning and the material that they cover can be applied more directly to the world outside of high school.
Most of the programs formerly called vocational education are now referred to as career and technical education (CTE) or career/tech. Because of the adoption of more rigorous academic standards for all students and increases in the skill level needed for most jobs, programs focused primarily on technical skills have had to increasingly include more academic content. For example, a teacher of an auto mechanics class might consciously make an effort to include more basic physics principles in the curriculum to enhance the hands-on lessons.
Two types of career and technical programs in particular represent significantly different high school models: Regional Occupational Centers and Programs (ROCPs) and Partnership Academies.
Regional Occupation Centers and Programs
Regional Occupation Centers and Programs in California offer an opportunity for students to explore and gain training in more than 100 different career areas such as forensic science, engineering, manufacturing, technology, automotive technology, graphic design, digital pre-press, and healthcare. They provide high school students—and some adults—career education, advanced training, and courses to upgrade skills as well as counseling /guidance services and placement assistance. High school students frequently spend part of the school day in a traditional academic program and the other part focusing on a vocation—either in a program offered at their high school, a regional center, or industry site, such as a hospital or automotive dealer.
ROCPs are the oldest and largest career/tech option in the state. They were created in 1967 as a way to serve students on a regional basis mostly because of the expensive equipment needed for some programs.
By law, ROCPs must offer courses that meet the current labor market demand. They work with public agencies, businesses, and industry to design and provide programs that will meet local needs for skilled workers. More than 18,000 business and industry representatives statewide monitor the ROCP curricula. With their input, course content is updated annually to ensure the curricula stay current with industry demand.
During the 2003–04 school year, 74 ROCPs served approximately 336,000 high school students or about 37% of California’s high school population age 16 and older. Of those students, 45% were female and 55% were male. In addition, ROCPs provided classes to about 165,000 adults, bringing their full enrollment to more than 500,000 students. More than 600 ROCP courses are approved for college credit by community colleges and universities.
For an example of this high school model, see:
Nationally, and in California, there is increasing interest in promoting a vision for how high schools can provide curricula that are engaging, rigorous, and prepare students for postsecondary education and for a career after high school. That vision is often referred to as multiple pathways. One challenge, however, is that the term itself is not universally recognized and can also be defined many different ways.
Most advocates agree on the goal: Provide all students with access to a rigorous core curriculum, help them achieve high standards, and also give them enough choice and flexibility within the high school curriculum to meet their diverse interests and post-graduation goals. Student engagement is key. The end result of this approach is to ensure that all students develop the skills and knowledge they need to have many options when they graduate from high school and later in their lives and careers.
Multiple pathways also refers to specific models for reforming the way academic and career technical content are taught in high schools and the extent to which the two are integrated into students' educational and life experiences.
For examples of this high school model, see:
Some advocates use the term multiple pathways to explicitly refer to various high school course sequences that emphasize a career focus (e.g., health, construction, engineering) and that blend Career Technical Education and college prep requirements. Partnership Academies are an example.
Partnership Academies
In order to prepare students for both college entrance and work success, Partnership or Career Academies offer blended vocational and academic programs with a curriculum focusing on a career theme that is tied to academic classes. Students work with the same group of teachers over a number of years. Businesses—which could benefit from the pool of better-prepared workers who graduate from the school—play a key role in providing oversight and guidance to these programs by:
- mentoring students,
- offering work-based learning experiences during the summer and school year,
- providing classroom speakers, and
- sponsoring field trips.
Partnership Academies’ technical education is purposefully broad, focusing on key industries as opposed to specific jobs. Industry areas include health, electronics, the media, agribusiness, building trades, natural resources, finance, and retail trade. Students typically are in the academies for three years (grades 10–12). The academies are small, serving 100 to 150 students, and are usually school-within-school programs, though the career/tech component is often provided by nearby ROCPs. Often these academies are aimed at students who are economically disadvantaged, or who are struggling in school.
These types of schools began in Philadelphia as early as 1969 but did not catch on in California until the 1980s. In 2004–05 the state provided a total of $23 million to support 269 Career Academies in schools throughout the state. State grants must be matched 100% by the district and business partners.
For an example of this high school model, see:
Charter schools are generally smaller and less bureaucratic than most other public schools. While they have more freedom from regulations, they also often have fewer resources. They are operated independently under a performance agreement with a chartering authority (a school district, county office of education, or, in rare cases, the State Board of Education). The performance agreement spells out the school’s educational program, goals, and several other features. Charter schools can be converted from an existing school or started from scratch by parents, teachers, or community members. They can be run by nonprofits or for-profit organizations.
Charter schools are free from most regulations that apply to other public schools and are usually able to hire their own teachers and other staff. But they can be closed if they fail to meet promises regarding student performance or if they mismanage finances. They cannot charge tuition and must generally be open to all students or by lottery if demand for pupil slots exceeds the supply. Charter schools, like magnet schools, are allowed to have admissions guidelines to increase the likelihood of a match between a student’s interests and the school’s mission. For example, a charter school with a curriculum centered on performing arts may require pupils to audition.
California charter schools are diverse. Some emphasize core academics; others feature science, technology, or performing arts. Some are online only; others have unusual schedules. Although most charter schools are smaller than traditional schools, they do not have to be. Some have typical grade configurations, but a large percentage of these schools depart from tradition in a variety of ways.
Although most charters offer courses in a classroom setting, some are not classroom based. Nonclassroom-based charter schools vary significantly from one another in location, size, configuration, curriculum, and student body. Although there is no such thing as a “typical” nonclassroom-based charter, information collected by EdSource in 2006 on 72 of these schools found some commonalities:
- About half were in rural communities;
- Most were configured as K–12 or K–8 schools (about 10% served grades 9–12 );
- The majority enrolled fewer than 300 students; and
- More than half of the students in these schools were white.
Most of the nonclassroom-based schools came into existence to support home schoolers or older students doing independent study. They generally have a principal who assigns a teacher to each student. The student, parent, and teacher then work out a program that fits the student’s needs. The teacher is expected to provide support to the student, including answering questions, supplying direction when needed, reviewing student work, and meeting with the student on a regular basis. The schools generally either provide materials or funding to purchase them. A handful of these schools relied solely on distance learning, but most offered some site-based classes, field trips, and other chances for community building.
For examples of this high school model, see:
Classroom Based Charters:
Non-Classroom Based Charters:
Small schools serve fewer students (typically 500 or fewer) and allow for more personal interactions in school among teachers, students, parents, and administrators. These connections can give students a greater sense of belonging that may lead to fewer behavior problems and improved attendance. A smaller school may also make it easier for students to ask for help and can motivate students to learn if they know that someone cares if they show up for school and do well.
Many small schools are successful because they enable adults in the school to see better which students need assistance and to implement innovations to address their needs. Parents may also become more involved because the small school size allows for more frequent interactions with teachers and can make the school seem more accessible to those wanting to help out. In general, poor and minority students benefit most from small schools.
A small school may be located in a physical site that is small or in a larger building that is divided into small learning communities. For example, a larger school might section off different wings of the building and start smaller learning communities in each. Each wing would then operate with a certain set of students and teachers.
For an example of this high school model, see:
Dual enrollment programs allow students to take college courses while still enrolled in high school. They introduce participants to college-level material and provide access to courses their high schools might not offer, including career/technical education classes. Some programs offer online classes, which are particularly beneficial to students in rural areas. More generally, the experience demystifies college for students, helping to ease their transition by making them aware of support services, the expectations of professors, and the physical layout of the campus.
The programs vary, with courses taught at the college or high school site; by a community college professor or a specially credentialed high school teacher; with a college curriculum or one combined with high school curriculum; with a full-time program or a part-time one; and with a mix of college and high school students or only high school students. Examples of dual enrollment programs include "middle college" and "early college high school." In general, the dual enrollment programs appear to benefit students academically.
These programs can also save money for both students and the state. Students can accumulate up to two years' worth of college credits without having to pay tuition costs. And the state ends up subsidizing the student's education for a shorter period. For the state of Utah, this financial advantage was compelling enough that the state created an incentive for students to participate. The state waives 75% of junior and senior year tuition at its public universities if students participate in a dual enrollment program and earn an associate degree by the summer after their graduation from high school.
Dual enrollment programs have existed for more than 30 years, but national data on their growth and the number of participants are not available. According to a 2004 report from the Education Commission of the States (ECS), 47 states were operating some sort of dual enrollment program.
In California, dual enrollments increased from 2% of total California community college enrollment in 1992 to about 4% in 2002, serving approximately 60,000 students. In 2002, however, state officials concluded that some high schools and community colleges were taking inappropriate advantage of the dual enrollment option by loading up physical education classes with high school students and getting funding from both systems. To address the situation, Senate Bill (SB) 338 was passed in 2003. It limited the extent to which physical education courses could be included in dual enrollment programs. Although that particular issue was formally addressed, the cloud surrounding it has left many campuses hesitant to build up their dual enrollment programs.
For an example of this high school model, see:
Magnets offer a particular curriculum or instructional approach that is either the focus of an entire school or of a specific program within a school. In many cases, that curriculum centers on the performing arts, sciences, or a career area. In contrast to charter schools, magnet schools operate within the school district’s same administrative system.
These schools were started in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a vehicle for achieving racial integration within schools, and federal funding is still available through the Magnet Schools Assistance Program. The magnet school’s compelling curriculum and often increased funding were expected to draw many types of students to the school, thereby achieving integration voluntarily rather than by forced bussing or other means. Students often crossed traditional attendance zones to attend the school. For example, if schools in the north of a district served mostly Latino students and those in the south served mostly white students, starting a performing arts magnet program in the Latino school might draw more white students to that school.
While districts still use magnets as a strategy to help racially balance a school, many magnets have become highly competitive and, through application processes, now focus more on accepting the most gifted and motivated students.
For examples of this high school model, see:
Certain school models are designed specifically to assist students who are exceptionally at risk of failing or dropping out of high school, such as those who are pregnant; are in juvenile hall, the foster care system, or other residential programs; or have rebelled in an environment that did not meet their needs. These students, who represent some of the state's most disadvantaged, troubled, and vulnerable youth, face a number of obstacles in achieving academic proficiency. While the models mentioned above may meet some of these students' needs, certain schools were designed specifically with them in mind:
- Opportunity Education schools, classes, and programs provide support for students with discipline, attendance, and academic problems. They provide specialized curriculum and instruction, guidance and counseling, psychological services, and tutoring. They are used as a short-term intervention, with the goal of returning students to regular classrooms.
- The Program Access and Retention Initiative provides assistance to students at risk of dropping out of high school. It aims to increase the number of unserved and underserved youth who receive a GED or high school diploma and are placed in meaningful employment.
- Continuation Education serves students who are 16 or older who are at risk of not graduating. These students may have other commitments, such as employment or family obligations, which make it difficult to complete the required high school credits in the standard school schedule. The minimum school day is three hours. These schools may collaborate with career and technical education programs.
- Community Day Schools serve expelled students or those referred by a School Attendance Review Board. The six-hour minimum instructional day is conducted with a small teacher-to-student ratio. Students benefit from the additional assistance from psychologists as well as school and vocational counselors. Personnel from county offices of education, probation offices, and others also assist students.
- High-Risk Youth and Public Safety programs serve youth populations on probation—specifically students who are first-time offenders and those who have served at least 90 days of a sentence of at least six months. The programs enhance the traditional academic curriculum and require that students participate for eight hours each school day (and sometimes on nonschool days).
- Juvenile Court Schools provide an alternative educational program for students who are incarcerated and are under the protection or authority of the court system.
ConnectEd: The California Center for College and Career
www.connectedcalifornia.org
ConnectEd looks at policy, practice, and research to determine the best ways to prepare students for college and career. It supports an academically rigorous approach to career/tech education.
2150 Shattuck Ave., Suite 1200
Berkeley, CA 94704
510/849-4945
Fax: 510/841-1076
E-mail: Info@ConnectEdCalifornia.org
California Department of Education (CDE) - ROCP
www.cde.ca.gov/ci/ct/rp
This page on the California Department of Education's website provides extensive information on the state's Regional Occupation Centers and Programs (ROCPs), including model programs, funding, and accountability. It also provides links to resources, along with a longitudinal study report on ROCPs.
Regional Occupational Centers and Programs and Workforce Development Unit
1430 N Street, Suite 4503
Sacramento, CA 95814
916/322-5050
Career Academy Support Network
casn.berkeley.edu
Housed at the University of California at Berkeley, this site offers support and professional development assistance for those running career or partnership academies. It includes a directory of schools by state, research reports, planning and scheduling guides, and other resources.
Career Academy Support Network
UC Berkeley Graduate School of Education
Berkeley, CA 94720-1670
510/643-5748
Fax: 510/642-2124
E-mail: ask_casn@berkeley.edu
California Department of Education (CDE) - Partnership Academies
www.cde.ca.gov/ci/gs/hs/cpagen.asp
This page of the CDE website provides links to information on California Partnership Academies. It includes a program overview, resources and forms, and information on the annual California Partnership Academies conference.
High School Initiatives/Career Education Office
1430 N Street, Suite 4503
Sacramento, CA 95814
916/319-0893
Fax: 916/319-0163
National Career Academy Coalition
www.ncacinc.org/37583731714632/site/default.asp
The Coalition site provides research, technical assistance, information about conferences, peer support, and other resources to existing or developing career academies and businesses involved with them.
California Charter Schools Association (CCSA)
http://www.charterassociation.org
The California Charter Schools Association supports existing charter schools and seeks to expand the number of charter schools operating in the state. It advocates for better funding and flexibility for charter schools. It also provides services and supports to those operating or starting such schools.
818 W. 7th St., Suite 910
Los Angeles, CA 90017
213/244-1446
Fax: 213/652-1000
E-mail: info@charterassociation.org
Charter Schools Development Center (CSDC)
http://www.cacharterschools.org
The Charter Schools Development Center provides technical assistance, training, and support to charter schools in California, nationally, and internationally. Resources include "how to" guidebooks for charter schools on topics such as incorporation, design, and accountability. The Center operates workshops, conferences, and consulting services for those working in or with charter schools.
7750 College Town Drive, Suite 100
Sacramento, CA 95826
916/278-6069
Fax: 916/278-4094
E-mail: CSDC@chartercenter.org
U.S. Charter Schools
www.uscharterschools.org
This site offers general information on charter schools including who typically starts these schools and why. It provides links to information on facilities, governance, human resources, funding sources, and other issues specific to running a charter school. It also includes state-by-state profiles of charter school laws and resources.
Charter management organizations are nonprofits that operate a network of schools—making it easier and more cost effective to operate the schools. These organizations may develop school design principles and generally support the schools. A few of the networks with high schools operating in California are listed here:
Aspire Public Schools
www.aspirepublicschools.org
Aspire Public Schools are operated in low-income urban communities in California. These schools focus on high standards for all students and clear learning goals, offering a longer school day and year than the typical California public school.
426 17th St., Suite 200
Oakland, CA 94612
510/251-1660
Fax: 510/251-1670
E-mail: info@aspirepublicschools.org
Green Dot Public Schools
www.greendotpublicschools.org
Green Dot Public Schools is a network of small charter high schools in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Green Dot founders hope that the performance results of their schools will lead to systemic reform in the Los Angeles Unified School District and the creation of a small schools model district-wide.
350 South Figueroa St., Suite 213
Los Angeles, CA 90071
213/621-0276
Fax: 213/621-4419
Knowledge is Power Program (KIPP)
www.kipp.org
KIPP charter schools serve students in grades 5-8, and are located in 31 states including California. KIPP students are primarily African American or Latino/Hispanic, and most are eligible for federally subsidized meals. KIPP focuses on a longer school day, week, and year, with over two hours of homework per night.
San Francisco Office
345 Spear St., Suite 510
San Francisco, CA 94105
866/345-KIPP
Fax: 415/348-0588
E-mail: info@kipp.org
Leadership Public Schools
www.leadps.org
Leadership Public Schools is a network of California charter high schools that serve diverse and traditionally underserved students. Leadership Public Schools combine a traditional, rigorous college-preparatory curriculum with small school size and a schoolwide leadership development program for all students.
2601 Mission St., 9th floor
San Francisco, CA 94110
415/695-0669
Fax: 415/358-4513
E-mail: info@leadps.org
National Early College High School Initiative
www.earlycolleges.org
This national Initiative, funded by the Gates, Carnegie, Ford, and Kellogg Foundations, seeks to create 170 early college high schools by 2008. Its website provides general information on early college high school benefits as well as a library of article on the model. It also provides a link for more information on the fifteen sites that will be in California.
Jobs for the Future
88 Broad Street, 8th floor
Boston, MA 02110
617/728-4446
Fax: 617/728-4857
Magnet Schools of America
www.magnet.edu/modules/news
This membership group provides support, advocacy, and leadership to magnet schools and other schools of choice. The site includes a history of magnet schools, and, for purchase, a directory of magnet schools in the U.S. and other resources.
1012 14th Street NW
Washington, DC 20005
202/824-0672
Fax: 202/737-0100
Magnet Schools Assistance
www.ed.gov/programs/magnet/index.html
This federal program provides funding to those starting and operating magnet schools as part of a court-order or a federally-approved voluntary desegration plan. The site includes eligibility information, laws and regulations, guidance, and links to other resources.
U.S. Department of Education
400 Maryland Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20202
800/872-5327
California Department of Education (CDE) - Educational Options
www.cde.ca.gov/sp/eo
This page includes descriptions of and resources for magnet schools in addition to information on the many other alternative school models the California Department of Education supports. Most of the models covered on this page are designed to assist at-risk students.
Educational Options Office
1430 N Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
916/319-0791
California Department of Education (CDE) - Educational Options
www.cde.ca.gov/sp/eo
This page includes descriptions of and resources for magnet schools in addition to information on the many other alternative school models the California Department of Education supports. Most of the models covered on this page are designed to assist at-risk students.
Educational Options Office
1430 N Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
916/319-0791
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